1841 Census of Great Britain,
Occupations (Sample Report Title: Abstract of the Answers and Returns made pursuant to Acts 3 & 4 Vict. c. 99, and 4 Vict. c. 7, intituled respectively " An Act "for taking an Account of the Population of Great Britain," and "An Act to amend the "Acts of the last Session for taking an Account of the Population." Occupation Abstract, 1841: Part I. England and Wales, and Islands in the British Seas),
Table
[1]
: "
Occupation Abstract".
OCCUPATIONS |
Males
|
Females
|
20 Years of Age and upwards
[1]
|
Under 20 Years of Age
[2]
|
20 Years of Age and upwards
[3]
|
Under 20 Years of Age
[4]
|
Accountant |
12
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Actor (Play) |
1
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
Agent and Factor (branch not specified) |
93
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Anchor-smith and Chain-maker |
1
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Architect |
3
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
Army |
7
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Army, Half-pay |
0
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Artist |
14
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
Attorney, Solicitor, and Law Student |
20
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Auctioneer, Appraiser, and House Agent |
12
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Baker |
130
|
23
|
8
|
0
|
Banker |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Basket-maker |
13
|
2
|
2
|
0
|
Bath-keeper and Attendant |
1
|
0
|
2
|
0
|
Bell rope-maker |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Blacking-maker |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Blacksmith |
200
|
48
|
1
|
0
|
Bleacher (branch not specified) |
69
|
8
|
5
|
1
|
Block and Printer-cutter |
52
|
10
|
0
|
0
|
Boat and Barge-builder |
4
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Boat and Bargeman and Woman |
34
|
6
|
0
|
0
|
Bobbin-maker and Turner |
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
Bolt-maker |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Bone-dealer |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Bonnet-maker |
45
|
12
|
0
|
0
|
Bookseller, Bookbinder, and Publisher |
152
|
18
|
11
|
2
|
Boot and Shoe-maker |
394
|
51
|
22
|
2
|
Botanist |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Bottle-dealer |
0
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
Braid-maker |
0
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
Brass-finisher and Worker |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Brass-founder and Moulder |
18
|
10
|
0
|
0
|
Brazier and Tinker |
13
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
Brewer |
140
|
3
|
1
|
0
|
Brick and Tile-maker |
84
|
18
|
6
|
0
|
Bricklayer |
110
|
12
|
0
|
0
|
Broker (branch not specified) |
19
|
4
|
1
|
0
|
Broker, Furniture |
4
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Broker, Stock and Share |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Brush and Broom-maker |
27
|
8
|
1
|
0
|
Builder |
4
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Butcher |
130
|
17
|
13
|
0
|
Butcher, Pork |
6
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Button-maker |
0
|
0
|
2
|
0
|
Cabinet-maker and Upholsterer |
112
|
17
|
24
|
2
|
Cane-worker |
2
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
Cap-maker |
3
|
0
|
13
|
8
|
Card (Machine) Maker |
8
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
Carpenter and Joiner |
433
|
48
|
0
|
1
|
Carpet-manufacture (all branches) |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Carrier, Carter, and Waggoner |
143
|
16
|
0
|
0
|
Carver and Gilder |
34
|
8
|
1
|
0
|
Cattle-dealer |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Cellarman |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Chair-maker |
4
|
2
|
1
|
0
|
Charwoman |
0
|
0
|
127
|
4
|
Cheese Factor and Monger |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Chemist and Druggist |
47
|
10
|
1
|
0
|
Chemist, Manufacturing |
0
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
Chimney-sweeper |
4
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
China, Earthenware, and Glass-dealer |
3
|
0
|
3
|
0
|
Clergyman and Student of Divinity |
7
|
3
|
0
|
0
|
Clerk |
194
|
50
|
1
|
0
|
Clock and Watch-maker (all branches) |
31
|
2
|
0
|
1
|
Clothes-dealer |
0
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
Clothier |
4
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Coach Maker (all branches) |
32
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
Coachman, Coach-guard, and Postboy |
40
|
3
|
0
|
0
|
Coal and Colliery Agent |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Coal Heaver, Porter and Labourer |
10
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Coal Merchant and Dealer |
40
|
3
|
8
|
0
|
Coffee Roaster |
2
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Colour-manufacture |
20
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Commission Agent |
5
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Cooper |
47
|
5
|
0
|
0
|
Copper Manufacture |
6
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Copper Merchant |
1
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
Copper-smith |
24
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Cork-cutter and Manufacturer |
2
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Corn Agent |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Corn-dealer and Merchant |
9
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Cotton Manufacture (all branches) |
808
|
325
|
879
|
458
|
Cotton Merchant and Dealer |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Crape Manufacture |
0
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
Cupper and Dentist |
1
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
Currier and Leather-seller |
18
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
Cutler |
11
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
Designer |
10
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Die-cutter and Sinker |
1
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
Distiller |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Draper |
26
|
7
|
9
|
0
|
Draper, Linen |
8
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
Draughtsman |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Dress-maker and Milliner |
28
|
9
|
371
|
134
|
Drover |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Drysalter |
9
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Dye-manufacture |
8
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
Dyer, Calenderer, and Scourer |
526
|
165
|
5
|
0
|
Dyer, Cotton |
273
|
69
|
0
|
2
|
Dyer, Fustian |
22
|
3
|
0
|
0
|
Dyer, Leather |
4
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Dyer, Linen |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Dyer, Silk |
98
|
22
|
1
|
0
|
Dyer, Wool and Woollen |
52
|
7
|
0
|
0
|
Dyer, Worsted |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Eating-house-keeper |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Embosser |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Embroiderer |
0
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
Engine and Machine-maker |
168
|
35
|
0
|
0
|
Engineer and Engine-worker |
167
|
18
|
0
|
0
|
Engineer, Civil |
4
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Engraver |
138
|
26
|
0
|
0
|
Exhibition (Show) Keeper |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Factory-worker (branch not specified) |
152
|
42
|
68
|
37
|
Farmer and Grazier |
15
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Farrier, Cattle-doctor and Veterinary Surgeon |
8
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
Fellmonger |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
File-cutter and Maker |
6
|
10
|
0
|
0
|
Filter-maker |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Fireman |
9
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Fish-dealer and Monger |
15
|
2
|
2
|
0
|
Fishing-tackle-maker |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Flannel manufacture (all branches) |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Flannel-dealer and Merchant |
0
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
Flax-manufacture (all branches) |
22
|
12
|
16
|
1
|
Flock-manufacturer |
0
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Floor-cloth Manufacture |
4
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Flour-dealer and Mealman |
7
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Flower (Artificial) maker |
1
|
0
|
5
|
5
|
Frame-maker |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
French-polisher |
4
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Fringe and Tassel manufacture |
22
|
1
|
33
|
17
|
Furrier |
6
|
1
|
9
|
0
|
Fustian Manufacture (all branches) |
217
|
55
|
103
|
23
|
Fustian-dealer |
0
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
Gardener |
56
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
Gas-fitter |
13
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Gas-works Service |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
General Dealer |
11
|
0
|
7
|
0
|
Ginger-beer and Soda-water-maker |
8
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Glass and Glass Bottle-manufacture (all branches) |
15
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
Glass paper-maker |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Glass-cutter, Grinder, and Polisher |
4
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Glass-stainer |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Glover and Glove-maker |
0
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
Glue and Size-maker |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Gold-beater |
2
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Government Civil Service, Customs and Excise |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Government Civil Service, Post-office |
7
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Government Civil Service, Stamps and Taxes |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Green-grocer and Fruiterer |
29
|
0
|
17
|
1
|
Grinder |
15
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Grocer and Tea-dealer |
71
|
16
|
11
|
1
|
Groom and Hostler |
30
|
6
|
0
|
0
|
Gun and Pistol-maker |
6
|
3
|
0
|
0
|
Haberdasher |
4
|
1
|
4
|
0
|
Hair-dresser |
37
|
9
|
2
|
0
|
Hardwareman |
4
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Hat and Band box-maker |
0
|
0
|
66
|
26
|
Hatter and Hat-maker |
103
|
9
|
25
|
6
|
Hawker and Huckster, and Pedlar |
34
|
6
|
8
|
1
|
Hemp-manufacture |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Herbalist |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Hooper and Hoop-maker |
4
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Hosier |
8
|
1
|
3
|
0
|
Iron Manufacture (all branches) |
108
|
31
|
0
|
1
|
Iron Merchant |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Ironmonger |
12
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Jeweller, Goldsmith, and Silversmith |
8
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Keeper or Head of Public Institution |
12
|
0
|
9
|
0
|
Keeper, Game, Gate, and Park |
6
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
Knitter |
0
|
1
|
5
|
2
|
Labourer |
1,198
|
122
|
10
|
1
|
Labourer, Agricultural |
470
|
69
|
1
|
0
|
Lace-maker |
3
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
Lamp-lighter |
8
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Land Agent |
4
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Last-maker |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Lath-render and Merchant |
14
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
Laundry-keeper, Washer, and Mangler |
19
|
1
|
268
|
11
|
Law Officer |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Leech bleeder and Dealer |
0
|
0
|
3
|
0
|
Librarian |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Linen Manufacture (all branches) |
2
|
0
|
1
|
2
|
Lint-maker |
0
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
Lithographer |
13
|
3
|
0
|
0
|
Livery-stable-keeper |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Locksmith and Bell-hanger |
5
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Lodging and Boarding-house Keeper |
2
|
0
|
26
|
0
|
Manure-dealer |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Mason and Stone-cutter |
107
|
15
|
1
|
0
|
Mason, Marble |
9
|
5
|
1
|
0
|
Mat and Matting-maker |
1
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
Match-maker and Seller |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Mathematical Instrument-maker |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Measure-maker |
0
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
Merchant |
36
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
Midwife |
0
|
0
|
6
|
0
|
Milk-seller and Cow-keeper |
28
|
2
|
8
|
0
|
Miller |
9
|
2
|
3
|
0
|
Millwright |
52
|
13
|
0
|
0
|
Miner (branch not specified) |
2
|
1
|
1
|
0
|
Miner, Coal |
3
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Miner, Lead |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Minister |
25
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Modeller |
2
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Moulder (branch not specified) |
32
|
7
|
0
|
0
|
Musician and Organist |
9
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Muslin-manufacture (all branches) |
5
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Nailor and Nail-maker |
8
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Naturalist |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Net-maker and Mender |
0
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
News-vendor |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Nurse |
0
|
0
|
21
|
3
|
Optician |
2
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Organ-builder |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Ornament-maker |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Packer |
120
|
12
|
0
|
0
|
Packing-case-maker |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Painter, Plumber, and Glazier |
270
|
44
|
0
|
0
|
Paper Stainer |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Paper, Merchant and Dealer |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Paper-hanger |
0
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Paper-manufacture (all branches) |
6
|
4
|
1
|
0
|
Parochial and Church-officer |
9
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Pastry-cook and Confectioner |
17
|
2
|
11
|
5
|
Patten and Clog-maker |
20
|
6
|
0
|
0
|
Pattern-card-maker |
9
|
4
|
0
|
0
|
Pattern-designer and Maker |
59
|
7
|
0
|
1
|
Pawnbroker |
16
|
11
|
10
|
0
|
Pewterer |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Physician |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Pickle-maker |
1
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
Picture-dealer |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Picture-frame-maker |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Pig-dealer |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Pill-box-maker |
0
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
Pin Manufacture (all branches) |
1
|
0
|
3
|
1
|
Pipe-maker |
13
|
3
|
1
|
0
|
Plane-maker |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Plasterer |
54
|
4
|
0
|
0
|
Pocket-book-maker |
1
|
0
|
2
|
0
|
Police-officer, Constable, and Watchman |
64
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Polisher |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Porter, Messenger, and Errand-boy |
257
|
94
|
0
|
0
|
Potatoe-dealer and Merchant |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Potter |
4
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Poulterer |
4
|
0
|
3
|
1
|
Printer |
172
|
47
|
0
|
0
|
Printer, Copper-plate |
9
|
5
|
0
|
0
|
Printer, Cotton and Calico |
305
|
65
|
9
|
10
|
Printer, Silk |
5
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Printer, Woollen |
7
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Print-seller |
4
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
Provision-dealer and Merchant |
23
|
5
|
8
|
0
|
Pump-maker |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Quill-dresser and Dealer |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Rag-dealer, Gatherer, and Sorter |
5
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
Railway Contractor |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Railway Plate-layer |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Railway Service |
25
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Reed-maker |
11
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Refiner |
1
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Ribbon-manufacture |
6
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
Roller-maker and Coverer |
9
|
1
|
9
|
2
|
Rope and Cord-spinner |
101
|
57
|
4
|
1
|
Saddler, and Harness and Collar-maker |
30
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
Sail-cloth-manufacture |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Sail-maker |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Salesman and Woman |
61
|
7
|
1
|
0
|
Sand-dealer |
2
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Sawyer |
69
|
4
|
0
|
0
|
Scavenger and Nightman |
5
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Schoolmaster, Mistress, and Assistant; Tutor or Governess |
42
|
2
|
47
|
4
|
Screw-maker |
1
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
Seaman |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Seamstress |
1
|
0
|
84
|
11
|
Servant, Domestic |
113
|
67
|
1,006
|
579
|
Shawl-manufacture |
0
|
0
|
2
|
5
|
Shell-dealer |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Ship Builder and Carpenter |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Shop-keeper |
72
|
1
|
74
|
0
|
Shuttle-maker |
0
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Silk Manufacture (all branches) |
344
|
136
|
485
|
537
|
Skinner |
6
|
2
|
1
|
0
|
Slater |
28
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
Slop-seller |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Small Ware-dealer |
0
|
0
|
7
|
0
|
Small Ware-manufacturer |
80
|
12
|
27
|
18
|
Soap-manufacture |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Spade-maker |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Spindle-maker |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Spinner (branch not specified) |
24
|
4
|
35
|
23
|
Stationer |
6
|
4
|
1
|
0
|
Stationer, Law |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Stay and Corset-maker |
11
|
1
|
27
|
3
|
Stock (Men's) maker |
1
|
0
|
11
|
4
|
Stone-dealer |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Store-keeper |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Straw Bonnet and Hat-maker |
0
|
0
|
15
|
11
|
Straw-plait-worker |
3
|
0
|
8
|
4
|
Surgeon and Apothecary |
34
|
7
|
0
|
0
|
Surveyor (branch not specified) |
6
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Surveyor, Land |
4
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Tailor and Breeches-maker |
351
|
47
|
5
|
1
|
Tallow-chandler and Melter |
14
|
3
|
0
|
0
|
Tanner |
4
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Tape-manufacture (all branches) |
0
|
4
|
3
|
4
|
Tar-distiller |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Tavern-keeper, Beer-shop-keeper |
38
|
0
|
10
|
0
|
Tavern-keeper, Hotel and Inn-keeper |
8
|
0
|
2
|
0
|
Tavern-keeper, Publican and Victualler |
68
|
3
|
23
|
0
|
Tavern-keeper, Spirit-dealer and Merchant |
5
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Teacher or Professor of Languages |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Teacher or Professor of Music |
14
|
0
|
4
|
0
|
Teacher or Professor of Rhetoric |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Teacher or Professor of Singing |
0
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
Thread-manufacture |
8
|
0
|
17
|
5
|
Tiler |
2
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Tin-plate-worker and Tinman |
37
|
7
|
0
|
0
|
Tobacconist and Tobacco-manufacturer |
17
|
0
|
7
|
1
|
Toll-collector |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Tool-maker |
5
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Toy-dealer and Maker |
1
|
0
|
2
|
0
|
Traveller, Commercial |
6
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Tripe-dresser and Dealer |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Trunk and Box-maker |
6
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Turner |
44
|
13
|
0
|
0
|
Umbrella and Parasol-maker |
14
|
2
|
17
|
0
|
Undertaker |
0
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
Velvet-manufacture |
5
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Vermin-destroyer |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Warehouseman and Woman |
273
|
73
|
4
|
0
|
Waste-dealer |
3
|
2
|
0
|
0
|
Weaver (branch not specified) |
144
|
27
|
92
|
60
|
Weaver, Hand-loom |
4
|
0
|
9
|
0
|
Weaver, Power-loom |
19
|
11
|
19
|
12
|
Well-sinker |
3
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Wheelwright |
28
|
3
|
1
|
0
|
Whip-maker |
6
|
3
|
0
|
0
|
Whitesmith |
36
|
3
|
0
|
0
|
Wine-merchant |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Wire-drawer |
13
|
3
|
0
|
0
|
Woodman and Wood-cutter |
1
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Wool-dealer and Stapler |
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
Woollen and Cloth-manufacture (all branches) |
57
|
14
|
24
|
10
|
Woollen-clothier and Draper |
7
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
Worsted-manufacture |
3
|
1
|
12
|
7
|
Yeast-dealer |
4
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
Total Number of Persons whose Occupations are returned as above |
12,589
|
2,464
|
4,454
|
2,100
|
Other Persons employed in Trade (branch not specified) |
392
|
125
|
103
|
10
|
Number of Persons returned as of Independent Means |
201
|
11
|
743
|
27
|
Almspeople, Pensioners, Paupers, and Beggars |
94
|
21
|
141
|
11
|
Other Persons |
467
|
194
|
125
|
36
|
Residue of Population |
322
|
9,144
|
9,697
|
9,729
|
TOTAL POPULATION |
14,065
|
11,959
|
15,263
|
11,913
|
Click on the triangles for all about a particular number.
This website does not try to provide an exact replica of the original printed census
tables, which often had thousands of rows and far more columns than will fit on our web pages.
Instead, we let you drill down from national totals to the most detailed data available. The
column headings are those that appeared in the original printed report. The numbers presented
here, which are the same ones we use to create statistical maps and graphs, come from the
census table and have usually been carefully checked.
The system can only hold statistics for units listed in our administrative gazetteer, so some
rows from the original table may be missing. Sometimes big low-level units, like urban
parishes, were divided between more than one higher-level units, like Registration
sub-Districts. This is why some pages will give a higher figure for a lower-level
unit: it covers the whole of the lower-level unit, not just the part within the current
higher-level unit.